Page 230 - The CNN Effect in Action - How the News Media Pushed the West toward War ini Kosovo

1403975191ts11.qxd 19-2-07 05:10 PM Page 195
195
NOTES
demonstrated that most Americans were in favor of air strikes by late
1993. See R. Sobel, “To Intervene or Not to in Bosnia: That Was the
Question for the United States and Europe,” in Decisionmaking in a
Glass House: Mass Media, Public Opinion, and American and
European Foreign Policy in the 21st Century, ed. Brigitte Nacos,
Robert Shapiro, and Pierangelo Isernia (Lanhan, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2000), 114; in Kosovo, a slight majority of
Americans supported the air campaign throughout the 78 days of
bombing. Livingston, “Media Coverage of the War,” 377.
84. Entman, Projections of Power, 127.
85. Cited in Nye Jr., “Redefining NATO’s Mission,” 12–15.
86. Entman, Projections of Power, 95.
87. Nye Jr., “Redefining NATO’s Mission,” 12–15.
88. Entman, Projections of Power, 96.
89. Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect,” Livingston’s intervention
types were adapted from Richard Haas, Intervention: The Use of
American Military Force in the Post-Cold War World (Washington,
DC: Carnegie Endowment Book, 1994).
90. Consensual humanitarian interventions involve the use of the mili-
tary to aid a distressed population solely to save lives, not to change
political circumstances. Examples include U.S. assistance to
refugees in Goma, Zaire in 1994 after the Rwandan genocide, and
U.S. assistance to Bangladesh in 1991 after a devastating cyclone.
Imposed humanitarian interventions involve missions using the mil-
itary to create a secure environment for sustaining distressed popu-
lations. Examples include the 1992 intervention in Somalia up to
the summer of 1993 and Kurdish safe havens in northern Iraq since
April 1991. Peacekeeping involves the deployment of lightly armed
forces in a consensual environment, with only small-scale break-
downs in peace. U.S. peacekeeping forces in Macedonia are an
example. Peacemaking involves missions in which not all disputing
parties agree to the presence of outside peacekeepers. Though
peacekeepers will likely be heavily armed, it is distinct from conven-
tional war as the goal is not to inflict destruction on a party, but
rather to create conditions through the implementation of an
accord for peacekeeping. SOLIC involves the deployment of Special
Forces for specific missions such as counterterrorism and hostage
rescue and infiltration into enemy territory. During the Gulf War,
America’s Delta Force was allegedly involved in destroying Iraqi
Scud missile batteries in Iraq. Tactical and strategic deterrence
involves persuading an opponent that the costs of a particular action
outweigh the benefits. Tactical deterrence may involve a one-time
or short-term deployment to send a message, whereas as strategic
deterrence is aimed for the longer term, such as presence of U.S.
troops in South Korea to deter the North from invasion. See ibid.