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NOTES
30. Cited in Howard, “Dimensions of Strategy,” 197–203.
31. Ibid.
32. Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect.”
33. Cited in Dunsmore, “The Next War: Live?” 9.
34. Ibid., 10.
35. Ibid., 12.
36. Ibid., 15–16.
37. Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect.”
38. Wolfsfeld, Media and Political Conflict, 206.
39. Cited in Royce J. Ammon, Global Television and the Shaping of World
Politics (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2001), 6.
40. Gadi Wolfsfeld, “The News Media and the Second Intifada,”
Palestinian-Israeli Journal of Politics, Economics and Culture 10, no. 2
(2003): 9–11.
41. Ammon, Global Television and the Shaping of World Politics, 38–47.
42. Increasingly sophisticated news management operations have allowed
governments to maintain control of key political messages, according to
one line of argumentation, and prevented the media from gaining sig-
nificant autonomy over important political issues. See Lance W. Bennett
and Steven Livingston, “A Semi-Independent Press: Government
Control and Journalistic Autonomy in the Political Construction of
News,” Political Communication 20, no. 4 (2003): 360.
43. Koppel, “The Perils of Info-Democracy,” 356.
44. Johanna Neuman, Lights, Camera, War: Is Media Technology Driving
International Politics? (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 1–2.
45. Ibid., 2.
46. Ibid., 4.
47. Robin Brown, “Spinning the War: Political Communications,
Information Operations and Public Diplomacy in the War on
Terrorism,” in War and the Media: Reporting Conflict 24/7, ed. Daya
Kishan Thussa and Des Freedman (London: Sage, 2003), 91. Brown
calls this type of diplomacy “spin” and includes it as one of three tools
of the “communications armoury,” used by governments in war (focus-
ing specifically on the war on terrorism). The other two instruments
used in this regard are information operations and public diplomacy.
48. According to Jang (Pakistani newspaper), cited in Suzanne Lidster
and Peter Feuilherade, “Battle for Afghan Airwaves,” BBC News
Online, October 3, 2001, via http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/
monitoring/media_reports/1575425.stm; According to Gadi Wolfsfeld,
“Getting access to CNN has become a major priority for any antago-
nist hoping to reach an international audience.” Wolfsfeld, Media and
Political Conflict, 59.
49. Brown, “Spinning the War,” 93.
50. For example, the United States and Iran have had no diplomatic rela-
tions since 1979, but have communicated through the media over