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resources to sustain ongoing polling operations. As such they consult
other leaders and news coverage. Entman, Projections of Power,
125–126. Furthermore, as an anecdotal piece of evidence to support
this case, according to Presidential Special Advisor George
Stephanopoulas, the Clinton White House (at least in its first term)
did not conduct polls on foreign policy, but Clinton did “pay real
attention to the op-eds to see what people are saying.” See Gowing,
“Real-Time Television Coverage,” 19–20.
(London: Routledge,
13. Christopher Coker, Humane Warfare
2001), 148.
14. Clausewitz, On War, 101.
15. Carr, The Twenty Years Crisis, 33–34.
16. Michael Howard, “The Dimensions of Strategy,” in War (Oxford
Readers), ed. Lawrence Freedman (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1994), 199.
17. Taylor, Global Communications, 59.
18. Holsti, “Public Opinion,” 514–515.
19. Ibid., 517.
20. According to Kenneth Warren, it is important to distinguish between
reputable polling firms that following scientific and ethical standards
and those that use polling for political ends. The former have proven
to provide accurate data. For example, the average combined error in
all major polls for U.S. presidential elections between 1956 and 1996
was under 2 percent. See Warren, In Defense of Public Opinion Polling,
45–80.
21. Taylor, Global Communications, 64. Also see Daniel Yankelovich,
“Farewell to ‘the President Knows Best,’ ” Foreign Affairs 57, no. 3
(1979).
22. Although it could be argued that the post-9/11 era has reversed
much of this sense of security, at least in the United States, and led to
greater trust once again in the federal government.
23. Entman, “Declarations of Independence,” 14–15.
24. One notable exception to this assumption is Steven Livingston’s
model, which does not assume a role for public opinion.
25. There is much debate regarding the importance of foreign policy in
democratic elections. While some see a limited role for foreign policy,
Aldrich, Sullivan, and Borgida found that it had “large effects” in five
of nine U.S. presidential elections between 1952 and 1984. Cited in
Holsti, “Public Opinion,” 521.
26. Dunsmore, “The Next War: Live?” 17.
27. Hallin, The Uncensored War, 4.
28. John A. Vasquez, “Foreign Policy, Learning and War,” in New
Directions in the Study of Foreign Policy, ed. Charles F. Hermann,
Charles W. Kegley Jr., and James N. Rosenau (Boston: Allen &
Unwin, 1987), 367.
29. Entman, Projections of Power, 125.