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issues of common interest during the 1991 Gulf War, 2001
Afghanistan War, and the 2003 Iraq War.
51. Taylor, Global Communications, 96.
52. Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect.”
53. Although the national interest is an ambiguous concept that is subject
to much criticism, governments still employ the term frequently and
attempt to clarify it by breaking it down into specific goals. For exam-
ple, the U.S. State Department lists the following four goals as key
national interests on its Web site: (1) Promoting peace and stability in
regions of vital interest; (2) Creating jobs at home by opening markets
abroad; (3) Helping developing nations establish stable economic
environments that provide investment and export opportunities; and
(4) Bringing nations together to address global problems such as
cross-border pollution, the spread of communicable diseases, terrorism,
nuclear smuggling, and humanitarian crises. From U.S. Department of
State, “State Department: What We Do,” via www.state.gov.
54. Chris Brown, Understanding International Relations (Basingstoke:
Palgrave, 2001), 80–83.
55. Christopher Hill, The Changing Politics of Foreign Policy (Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 98.
56. Brown, Understanding International Relations, 82–83; ibid., 235–240.
57. David M. Barrett, “Presidential Foreign Policy,” in The Making of US
Foreign Policy, 2nd Edition, ed. John Dumbrell (Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 1997); Douglas C. Foyle, Counting the
Public In: Presidents, Public Opinion and Foreign Policy (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1997).
58. Graham Allison, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis
(New York: HarperCollins, 1971). Theory of Bureaucratic politics first
appeared in Graham Allison, “Conceptual Models and the Cuban
Missile Crisis,” American Political Science Review 63, no. 3 (1969).
59. Hill, The Changing Politics, 86.
60. Ibid., 82–85.
61. Ibid., 88–92. Also see Steve Smith, “Perspectives on the Foreign
Policy System: Bureaucratic Politics Approaches,” in Understanding
Foreign Policy: The Foreign Policy Systems Approach, ed. Michael Clarke
and Brian White (Aldershot, Hants: Edward Elgar, 1989), 112–125.
62. Hill, The Changing Politics, 128.
63. Ibid., 128–129.
64. Clausewitz, On War, 99.
65. Hill, Changing Politics, 128.
66. According to Peter Arnett:
The pictures had been so shocking that people did begin to ques-
tion policy. Few argued that the consequences of a bombing raid
that killed so many civilians should be ignored, particularly in a